Magma plumbing beneath Anak Krakatau volcano, Indonesia: evidence for multiple magma storage regions

Understanding magma plumbing is essential for predicting the behaviour of explosive volcanoes. We investigate magma plumbing at the highly active Anak Krakatau volcano (Indonesia), situated on the rim of the 1883 Krakatau caldera by employing a suite of thermobarometric models. These include clinopyroxene-melt thermobarometry, plagioclase-melt thermobarometry, clinopyroxene composition barometry and olivine-melt thermometry. Petrological studies have previously identified shallow magma storage in the region of 2–8 km beneath Krakatau, while existing seismic evidence points towards mid- to deep-crustal storage zone(s), at 9 and 22 km, respectively. Our results show that clinopyroxene in Anak Krakatau lavas crystallized at a depth of 7–12 km, while plagioclase records both shallow crustal (3–7 km) and sub-Moho (23–28 km) levels of crystallization. These magma storage regions coincide with well-constrained major lithological boundaries in the crust, implying that magma ascent and storage at Anak Krakatau is strongly controlled by crustal properties. A tandem seismic tomography survey independently identified a separate upper crustal (<7 km) and a lower to mid-crustal magma storage region (>7 km). Both petrological and seismic methods are sensitive in detecting magma bodies in the crust, but suffer from various limitations. Combined geophysical and petrological surveys, in turn, offer increased potential for a comprehensive characterization of magma plumbing at active volcanic complexes.     

Practical evaluation of carbon sources of forest soils in Slovenia from stable and radio-carbon isotope measurements

Carbon sources were estimated by measuring carbon isotope ratios (??¹³C and ??¹⁴C) with accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) in forest soils of different lithology. Six locations were selected in temperate deciduous and coniferous stands in Slovenia (?irovski vrh, Idrija, Ko?evski Rog, Pohorje, Gori?nica, and Rakitna), where carbonate rocks consisting of limestone and dolomite are abundant as underlying bedrock. Carbon isotope fractionation would not have occurred in two carbonaceous soils, since the values of both ??¹³C and ??¹⁴C changed consistently in these soils after thermal (550°C, 2?h) or chemical (1?M HCl, 24?h) treatments. Organic components were found to be predominant carbon sources (70?C100%) in the uppermost portions (0?C2?cm in depth). In deeper portions at a depth of about 30?C35?cm, soil carbon may be derived completely from underlying carbonate minerals in Idria, western part of Slovenia. The Combination of heat and chemical treatments with AMS provides practical information on soil carbon sources in carbonaceous soils.     

Petroleum-related hydrocarbons in deep and subsurface sediments from South-Western Barents Sea

Subsurface sediments from a pockmark area in South-Western Barents Sea have been earlier found to contain elevated levels of petroleum-related polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. This work describes a comprehensive analysis of various biomarkers, including the highly source-specific hopanes, in a 4.5?m long gravity core from the same area, together with subsurface sediment samples from other areas in the region without pockmarks present ("background samples"). A clear difference between the pockmark gravity core and the background sediment cores was found, both with regard to genesis and the level of transformation of organic matter. A number of indicator parameters, such as methylphenanthrene index (MPI-1), point towards a significantly higher maturity of hydrocarbons in the pockmark core throughout its length as compared to the other sampled locations. Higher contents of microbial hopanoids (hopenes) may indicate the former presence of petroleum. These findings confirm the hypothesis of a natural hydrocarbon source in the deeper strata present in the studied location with pockmarks.     

Plant Cover,Herbivory, and Resiliency in a Cape Cod Salt Marsh: Multi-year Responses and Recovery Following Manipulation of Nutrients and Competition

To assess responses and recovery of salt marsh grass species, we manipulated external nutrient supply and removed shoots of Spartina alterniflora or Spartina patens from fertilized and control plots in a Massachusetts marsh. The pulse-and-recovery experiment included treatments for 5 years, and recovery for an additional 7 years. Responses of these potential competitors sensitively depended on local contingencies of elevation and nutrient dose, and, moreover, the differences in outcomes were emphasized at longer time scales. Local contingencies became manifest as differences in responsiveness and resiliency of the different grass species, with differing time courses and longer-term outcomes as to what species were present. These features might explain the diverse results obtained in shorter-term salt marsh experiments, and provide a view of the complex suite of species-specific and external environmental variables that may control competitive interactions in general.     

Issues in characterizing heterogeneity and connectivity in non-multiGaussian media

The performances of kriging, stochastic simulations and sequential self-calibration inversion are assessed when characterizing a non-multiGaussian synthetic 2D braided channel aquifer. The comparison is based on a series of criteria such as the reproduction of the original reference transmissivity or head fields, but also in terms of accuracy of flow and transport (capture zone) forecasts when the flow conditions are modified. We observe that the errors remain large even for a dense data network. In addition some unexpected behaviours are observed when large transmissivity datasets are used. In particular, we observe an increase of the bias with the number of transmissivity data and an increasing uncertainty with the number of head data. This is interpreted as a consequence of the use of an inadequate multiGaussian stochastic model that is not able to reproduce the connectivity of the original field.     

Mean sea level trends around the English Channel over the 20th century and their wider context

This paper provides estimates of rates of change in mean sea level around the English Channel, based on an extensive new hourly sea level data set for the south coast of the UK, derived from data archaeology. Mean sea level trends are found to vary by between 0.8 and 2.3 mm/yr around the Channel. The rates of mean sea level change are calculated by removing the coherent part of the sea level variability from the time series of annual mean sea level before fitting linear trends. The improvement in accuracy gained by using this approach is assessed by comparing trends with those calculated using the more traditional method, in which linear trends are fitted directly to the original records. Removal of the coherent part of the sea level variability allows more precise trends to be calculated from records spanning 30 years. With the traditional approach 50 years is required to obtain the same level of accuracy. Rates of vertical land movement are approximated by subtracting the mean sea level trends from the most recent regional estimate of change in sea level due to oceanographic processes only. These estimated rates are compared to measurements from geological data and advanced geodetic techniques. There is good agreement around most of the UK. However, the rates estimated from the sea level records imply that the geological data suggest too much submergence along the western and central parts of the UK south coast. Lastly, the paper evaluates whether the high rates of mean sea level rise of the last decade are unusual compared to trends observed at other periods in the historical record and finds that they are not.     

DGPS and RTK Positioning Using the Internet

The Internet as a basis for Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) and differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) service provides many advantages for worldwide GPS users. Among these advantages are service unification, open architecture, bidirectional communication, and scalability. The current development of this service allows users to use RTK and DGPS through the Internet with conventional accuracy over the short and medium baselines. The perspective for this service lies in the field of wide-area augmentation systems (WASS). At this stage of the Internet-based RTK and DGPS service project, the general concept, system components, draft standards, and software are developed. ? 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Effects of aperture on Marchenko focussing functions and their radiation behaviour at depth

A focussing function is a specially constructed field that focusses on to a purely downgoing pulse at a specified subsurface position upon injection into the medium. Such focussing functions are key ingredients in the Marchenko method and in its applications such as retrieving Green's functions, redatuming, imaging with multiples and synthesizing the response of virtual sources/receiver arrays at depth. In this study, we show how the focussing function and its corresponding focussed response at a specified subsurface position are heavily influenced by the aperture of the source/receiver array at the surface. We describe such effects by considering focussing functions in the context of time-domain imaging, offering explicit connections between time processing and Marchenko focussing. In particular, we show that the focussed response radiates in the direction perpendicular to the line drawn from the centre of the surface data array aperture to the focussed position in the time-imaging domain, that is, in time-migration coordinates. The corresponding direction in the Cartesian domain follows from the sum (superposition) of the time-domain direction and the directional change due to time-to-depth conversion. Therefore, the result from this study provides a better understanding of focussing functions and has implications in applications such as the construction of amplitude-preserving redatuming and imaging, where the directional dependence of the focussed response plays a key role in controlling amplitude distortions.     

A transparent aqueous-saturated sand surrogate for use in physical modeling

This paper presents the geotechnical properties of a new family of synthetic transparent soils made of fused quartz, saturated with a matched refractive index water-based sucrose solution, suitable for modeling the behavior of sand in small-scale model tests. The dry density ranged between 1,134 and 1,358 kg/m³. The peak angle of friction was found to range from 46° to 57°. The average hydraulic conductivity was 1.7 × 10^?5 cm/s. The compressibility index (C _c) ranged from 0.34 to 0.57. The main advantage of fused quartz over available sand surrogates made of silica gel is that its solid structure better models the behavior of natural sand. The matching pore fluids are inert and non-toxic, which facilitates their use in educational settings. The availability of a safe and easy-to-use transparent sand permits measurement of three-dimensional deformation patterns and flow characteristics in controlled research experiments. The introduction of an aqueous solution permits the use of two immiscible pore fluids, one made of mineral oil and the other made of a sucrose solution, for modeling multiphase flow problems, as well as coupled flow-deformation problems.